📚 Academic Vocab
Academic English uses precise verbs and nouns. Instead of “looking at” a problem, a writer may analyze, evaluate, or synthesize it. Instead of an opinion, a paper may offer a hypothesis, a methodology, or the implications of the findings.
🧠 Core Thinking Verbs
🔍 Analyze
to take something apart to see how its pieces work and what they reveal
Example: The essay analyzes the novel’s structure rather than summarizing the plot.
🇫🇷 French: Analyser
🇩🇪 German: Analysieren
🇮🇹 Italian: Analizzare
🇵🇹 Portuguese: Analisar
💡 Nuance: More systematic than “discuss.” Breakdown, not judgment — that is evaluate.
to take something apart to see how its pieces work and what they reveal
Example: The essay analyzes the novel’s structure rather than summarizing the plot.
Show translations
🇪🇸 Spanish: Analizar🇫🇷 French: Analyser
🇩🇪 German: Analysieren
🇮🇹 Italian: Analizzare
🇵🇹 Portuguese: Analisar
💡 Nuance: More systematic than “discuss.” Breakdown, not judgment — that is evaluate.
⚖️ Evaluate
to weigh something against standards and decide how good, useful, or important it is
Example: Students evaluated the strengths and limits of the proposed policy.
🇫🇷 French: Évaluer
🇩🇪 German: Bewerten / evaluieren
🇮🇹 Italian: Valutare
🇵🇹 Portuguese: Avaliar
💡 Nuance: Requires a judgment. Analysis looks at parts; evaluation says how well they work.
to weigh something against standards and decide how good, useful, or important it is
Example: Students evaluated the strengths and limits of the proposed policy.
Show translations
🇪🇸 Spanish: Evaluar🇫🇷 French: Évaluer
🇩🇪 German: Bewerten / evaluieren
🇮🇹 Italian: Valutare
🇵🇹 Portuguese: Avaliar
💡 Nuance: Requires a judgment. Analysis looks at parts; evaluation says how well they work.
📖 Interpret
to decide what something means when the meaning is not obvious
Example: The historian interpreted the letters as evidence of growing tension.
🇫🇷 French: Interpréter
🇩🇪 German: Interpretieren
🇮🇹 Italian: Interpretare
🇵🇹 Portuguese: Interpretar
💡 Nuance: Different readers can reach different interpretations of the same material.
to decide what something means when the meaning is not obvious
Example: The historian interpreted the letters as evidence of growing tension.
Show translations
🇪🇸 Spanish: Interpretar🇫🇷 French: Interpréter
🇩🇪 German: Interpretieren
🇮🇹 Italian: Interpretare
🇵🇹 Portuguese: Interpretar
💡 Nuance: Different readers can reach different interpretations of the same material.
🧩 Synthesize
to pull separate ideas or findings together so they form a new connected whole
Example: The review synthesizes results from twelve studies to find common patterns.
🇫🇷 French: Synthétiser
🇩🇪 German: Synthetisieren
🇮🇹 Italian: Sintetizzare
🇵🇹 Portuguese: Sintetizar
💡 Nuance: More than summarizing. Combining pieces creates a new understanding.
to pull separate ideas or findings together so they form a new connected whole
Example: The review synthesizes results from twelve studies to find common patterns.
Show translations
🇪🇸 Spanish: Sintetizar🇫🇷 French: Synthétiser
🇩🇪 German: Synthetisieren
🇮🇹 Italian: Sintetizzare
🇵🇹 Portuguese: Sintetizar
💡 Nuance: More than summarizing. Combining pieces creates a new understanding.
🌍 Contextualize
to set something inside the larger situation that helps explain it
Example: The chapter contextualizes the reform within the economy of the 1930s.
🇫🇷 French: Contextualiser
🇩🇪 German: Kontextualisieren
🇮🇹 Italian: Contestualizzare
🇵🇹 Portuguese: Contextualizar
💡 Nuance: Answers “What else was happening at the time?”
to set something inside the larger situation that helps explain it
Example: The chapter contextualizes the reform within the economy of the 1930s.
Show translations
🇪🇸 Spanish: Contextualizar🇫🇷 French: Contextualiser
🇩🇪 German: Kontextualisieren
🇮🇹 Italian: Contestualizzare
🇵🇹 Portuguese: Contextualizar
💡 Nuance: Answers “What else was happening at the time?”
📝 Critique
to look closely at the strengths and weaknesses of an idea or piece of work
Example: The final section critiques the study’s sampling method.
🇫🇷 French: Critiquer
🇩🇪 German: Kritisieren
🇮🇹 Italian: Criticare
🇵🇹 Portuguese: Criticar
💡 Nuance: Not a pure attack. A reasoned assessment can be positive, negative, or mixed.
to look closely at the strengths and weaknesses of an idea or piece of work
Example: The final section critiques the study’s sampling method.
Show translations
🇪🇸 Spanish: Criticar / hacer una crítica🇫🇷 French: Critiquer
🇩🇪 German: Kritisieren
🇮🇹 Italian: Criticare
🇵🇹 Portuguese: Criticar
💡 Nuance: Not a pure attack. A reasoned assessment can be positive, negative, or mixed.
↔️ Distinguish
to show the difference between things that might otherwise be confused
Example: It is important to distinguish correlation from causation.
🇫🇷 French: Distinguer
🇩🇪 German: Unterscheiden
🇮🇹 Italian: Distinguere
🇵🇹 Portuguese: Distinguir
💡 Nuance: More precise than a general “compare.” Highlights the difference that matters.
to show the difference between things that might otherwise be confused
Example: It is important to distinguish correlation from causation.
Show translations
🇪🇸 Spanish: Distinguir🇫🇷 French: Distinguer
🇩🇪 German: Unterscheiden
🇮🇹 Italian: Distinguere
🇵🇹 Portuguese: Distinguir
💡 Nuance: More precise than a general “compare.” Highlights the difference that matters.
⚖️ Contrast
to set two or more things side by side in order to bring out their differences
Example: The chapter contrasts early and late twentieth-century approaches.
🇫🇷 French: Contraster
🇩🇪 German: Gegenüberstellen
🇮🇹 Italian: Contrapporre
🇵🇹 Portuguese: Contrastar
💡 Nuance: Focuses on difference. “Compare” can include both similarities and differences.
to set two or more things side by side in order to bring out their differences
Example: The chapter contrasts early and late twentieth-century approaches.
Show translations
🇪🇸 Spanish: Contrastar🇫🇷 French: Contraster
🇩🇪 German: Gegenüberstellen
🇮🇹 Italian: Contrapporre
🇵🇹 Portuguese: Contrastar
💡 Nuance: Focuses on difference. “Compare” can include both similarities and differences.
🛠️ Formulate
to shape an idea, theory, or plan into a clear usable form
Example: The authors formulated a new hypothesis from gaps in the literature.
🇫🇷 French: Formuler
🇩🇪 German: Formulieren
🇮🇹 Italian: Formulare
🇵🇹 Portuguese: Formular
💡 Nuance: The step that turns a vague idea into something you can test or argue.
to shape an idea, theory, or plan into a clear usable form
Example: The authors formulated a new hypothesis from gaps in the literature.
Show translations
🇪🇸 Spanish: Formular🇫🇷 French: Formuler
🇩🇪 German: Formulieren
🇮🇹 Italian: Formulare
🇵🇹 Portuguese: Formular
💡 Nuance: The step that turns a vague idea into something you can test or argue.
➡️ Infer
to reach a conclusion from evidence that does not state the answer directly
Example: From the missing pages, she inferred that the file had been edited.
🇫🇷 French: Inférer
🇩🇪 German: Schließen / folgern
🇮🇹 Italian: Inferire
🇵🇹 Portuguese: Inferir
💡 Nuance: You infer; the text implies. Do not swap those two.
to reach a conclusion from evidence that does not state the answer directly
Example: From the missing pages, she inferred that the file had been edited.
Show translations
🇪🇸 Spanish: Inferir🇫🇷 French: Inférer
🇩🇪 German: Schließen / folgern
🇮🇹 Italian: Inferire
🇵🇹 Portuguese: Inferir
💡 Nuance: You infer; the text implies. Do not swap those two.
✅ Justify
to give reasons that show a claim, choice, or method is acceptable
Example: The paper justifies the sample size by pointing to earlier studies.
🇫🇷 French: Justifier
🇩🇪 German: Begründen / rechtfertigen
🇮🇹 Italian: Giustificare
🇵🇹 Portuguese: Justificar
💡 Nuance: Not the same as prove. You show the choice is reasonable, not that it is the only one.
to give reasons that show a claim, choice, or method is acceptable
Example: The paper justifies the sample size by pointing to earlier studies.
Show translations
🇪🇸 Spanish: Justificar🇫🇷 French: Justifier
🇩🇪 German: Begründen / rechtfertigen
🇮🇹 Italian: Giustificare
🇵🇹 Portuguese: Justificar
💡 Nuance: Not the same as prove. You show the choice is reasonable, not that it is the only one.
🏗️ Key Concepts & Structures
📐 Framework
a structured set of ideas used to organize thinking about a problem
Example: The study uses a social-identity framework to read the interview data.
🇫🇷 French: Cadre / cadre théorique
🇩🇪 German: Rahmen / Framework
🇮🇹 Italian: Quadro / framework
🇵🇹 Portuguese: Estrutura / quadro teórico
💡 Nuance: The scaffolding. A hypothesis sits inside a framework; it is not the framework itself.
a structured set of ideas used to organize thinking about a problem
Example: The study uses a social-identity framework to read the interview data.
Show translations
🇪🇸 Spanish: Marco / marco teórico🇫🇷 French: Cadre / cadre théorique
🇩🇪 German: Rahmen / Framework
🇮🇹 Italian: Quadro / framework
🇵🇹 Portuguese: Estrutura / quadro teórico
💡 Nuance: The scaffolding. A hypothesis sits inside a framework; it is not the framework itself.
💡 Hypothesis
a testable claim about what you expect to find
Example: The hypothesis predicted that sleep quality would fall as screen time rose.
🇫🇷 French: Hypothèse
🇩🇪 German: Hypothese
🇮🇹 Italian: Ipotesi
🇵🇹 Portuguese: Hipótese
💡 Nuance: Must be testable. A vague hunch is not a hypothesis.
a testable claim about what you expect to find
Example: The hypothesis predicted that sleep quality would fall as screen time rose.
Show translations
🇪🇸 Spanish: Hipótesis🇫🇷 French: Hypothèse
🇩🇪 German: Hypothese
🇮🇹 Italian: Ipotesi
🇵🇹 Portuguese: Hipótese
💡 Nuance: Must be testable. A vague hunch is not a hypothesis.
🧪 Methodology
the system of methods and principles used to carry out a study
Example: The methodology section explains why interviews were chosen over a survey.
🇫🇷 French: Méthodologie
🇩🇪 German: Methodologie / Methodik
🇮🇹 Italian: Metodologia
🇵🇹 Portuguese: Metodologia
💡 Nuance: Broader than “method.” It includes why those methods are appropriate.
the system of methods and principles used to carry out a study
Example: The methodology section explains why interviews were chosen over a survey.
Show translations
🇪🇸 Spanish: Metodología🇫🇷 French: Méthodologie
🇩🇪 German: Methodologie / Methodik
🇮🇹 Italian: Metodologia
🇵🇹 Portuguese: Metodologia
💡 Nuance: Broader than “method.” It includes why those methods are appropriate.
🧱 Premise
a starting claim that an argument treats as given
Example: One premise of the model is that people act on incomplete information.
🇫🇷 French: Prémisse
🇩🇪 German: Prämisse
🇮🇹 Italian: Premessa
🇵🇹 Portuguese: Premissa
💡 Nuance: Close to assumption. A premise is usually stated; an assumption may stay hidden.
a starting claim that an argument treats as given
Example: One premise of the model is that people act on incomplete information.
Show translations
🇪🇸 Spanish: Premisa🇫🇷 French: Prémisse
🇩🇪 German: Prämisse
🇮🇹 Italian: Premessa
🇵🇹 Portuguese: Premissa
💡 Nuance: Close to assumption. A premise is usually stated; an assumption may stay hidden.
❓ Assumption
something taken as true without being fully proven in this text
Example: The model rests on the assumption that income is reported accurately.
🇫🇷 French: Hypothèse de départ / présupposé
🇩🇪 German: Annahme
🇮🇹 Italian: Assunzione / presupposto
🇵🇹 Portuguese: Pressuposto
💡 Nuance: Good papers name their assumptions so readers can test them.
something taken as true without being fully proven in this text
Example: The model rests on the assumption that income is reported accurately.
Show translations
🇪🇸 Spanish: Supuesto / asunción🇫🇷 French: Hypothèse de départ / présupposé
🇩🇪 German: Annahme
🇮🇹 Italian: Assunzione / presupposto
🇵🇹 Portuguese: Pressuposto
💡 Nuance: Good papers name their assumptions so readers can test them.
🧭 Rationale
the reasoned explanation for why a choice or approach was taken
Example: The rationale for the case-study design appears in chapter two.
🇫🇷 French: Justification / raison d’être
🇩🇪 German: Begründung
🇮🇹 Italian: Motivazione / rationale
🇵🇹 Portuguese: Justificativa / fundamento
💡 Nuance: The “why this way?” paragraph. Close to justify, but usually a noun.
the reasoned explanation for why a choice or approach was taken
Example: The rationale for the case-study design appears in chapter two.
Show translations
🇪🇸 Spanish: Justificación / fundamento🇫🇷 French: Justification / raison d’être
🇩🇪 German: Begründung
🇮🇹 Italian: Motivazione / rationale
🇵🇹 Portuguese: Justificativa / fundamento
💡 Nuance: The “why this way?” paragraph. Close to justify, but usually a noun.
⭐ Significance
why a finding or question matters — also, in stats, whether a result is unlikely by chance
Example: The authors discuss the practical significance of a small but consistent effect.
🇫🇷 French: Importance / significativité
🇩🇪 German: Bedeutung / Signifikanz
🇮🇹 Italian: Importanza / significatività
🇵🇹 Portuguese: Importância / significância
💡 Nuance: Everyday use = importance. Statistical use is narrower. Do not mix the two without saying so.
why a finding or question matters — also, in stats, whether a result is unlikely by chance
Example: The authors discuss the practical significance of a small but consistent effect.
Show translations
🇪🇸 Spanish: Importancia / significación🇫🇷 French: Importance / significativité
🇩🇪 German: Bedeutung / Signifikanz
🇮🇹 Italian: Importanza / significatività
🇵🇹 Portuguese: Importância / significância
💡 Nuance: Everyday use = importance. Statistical use is narrower. Do not mix the two without saying so.
📊 Empirical
based on observation or measurement rather than theory alone
Example: The claim still needs empirical support from new data.
🇫🇷 French: Empirique
🇩🇪 German: Empirisch
🇮🇹 Italian: Empirico
🇵🇹 Portuguese: Empírico
💡 Nuance: Opposite of purely theoretical. Evidence you can point to.
based on observation or measurement rather than theory alone
Example: The claim still needs empirical support from new data.
Show translations
🇪🇸 Spanish: Empírico🇫🇷 French: Empirique
🇩🇪 German: Empirisch
🇮🇹 Italian: Empirico
🇵🇹 Portuguese: Empírico
💡 Nuance: Opposite of purely theoretical. Evidence you can point to.
📎 Evidence
the material used to support or challenge a claim
Example: The evidence for the second claim is weaker than the first.
🇫🇷 French: Preuves / éléments
🇩🇪 German: Belege / Evidenz
🇮🇹 Italian: Prove / evidenza
🇵🇹 Portuguese: Evidência / provas
💡 Nuance: Evidence supports; it does not automatically prove.
the material used to support or challenge a claim
Example: The evidence for the second claim is weaker than the first.
Show translations
🇪🇸 Spanish: Evidencia / pruebas🇫🇷 French: Preuves / éléments
🇩🇪 German: Belege / Evidenz
🇮🇹 Italian: Prove / evidenza
🇵🇹 Portuguese: Evidência / provas
💡 Nuance: Evidence supports; it does not automatically prove.
↪️ Implication
what follows from a finding — what it suggests for theory, policy, or practice
Example: One implication is that early screening may need to start sooner.
🇫🇷 French: Implication
🇩🇪 German: Implikation / Folgerung
🇮🇹 Italian: Implicazione
🇵🇹 Portuguese: Implicação
💡 Nuance: The “so what?” after the results. Not the same as the result itself.
what follows from a finding — what it suggests for theory, policy, or practice
Example: One implication is that early screening may need to start sooner.
Show translations
🇪🇸 Spanish: Implicación🇫🇷 French: Implication
🇩🇪 German: Implikation / Folgerung
🇮🇹 Italian: Implicazione
🇵🇹 Portuguese: Implicação
💡 Nuance: The “so what?” after the results. Not the same as the result itself.
🔗 Quality, Relationships & Validity
📋 Preliminary
early and still provisional — not the final word
Example: Preliminary results look promising, but the full analysis is not finished.
🇫🇷 French: Préliminaire
🇩🇪 German: Vorläufig
🇮🇹 Italian: Preliminare
🇵🇹 Portuguese: Preliminar
💡 Nuance: Comes first. Subsequent work comes later.
early and still provisional — not the final word
Example: Preliminary results look promising, but the full analysis is not finished.
Show translations
🇪🇸 Spanish: Preliminar🇫🇷 French: Préliminaire
🇩🇪 German: Vorläufig
🇮🇹 Italian: Preliminare
🇵🇹 Portuguese: Preliminar
💡 Nuance: Comes first. Subsequent work comes later.
⏭️ Subsequent
coming after something else in time or in a sequence
Example: Subsequent studies confirmed the original pattern.
🇫🇷 French: Ultérieur / subséquent
🇩🇪 German: Nachfolgend
🇮🇹 Italian: Successivo
🇵🇹 Portuguese: Posterior / subsequente
💡 Nuance: Formal “later.” Pair it with preliminary, not with “next” in casual talk.
coming after something else in time or in a sequence
Example: Subsequent studies confirmed the original pattern.
Show translations
🇪🇸 Spanish: Posterior / subsiguiente🇫🇷 French: Ultérieur / subséquent
🇩🇪 German: Nachfolgend
🇮🇹 Italian: Successivo
🇵🇹 Portuguese: Posterior / subsequente
💡 Nuance: Formal “later.” Pair it with preliminary, not with “next” in casual talk.
🎯 Relevant
connected to the question actually under discussion
Example: Only the most relevant sources were kept in the final review.
🇫🇷 French: Pertinent
🇩🇪 German: Relevant
🇮🇹 Italian: Pertinente / rilevante
🇵🇹 Portuguese: Relevante / pertinente
💡 Nuance: Interesting is not enough. Relevant means it belongs in this argument.
connected to the question actually under discussion
Example: Only the most relevant sources were kept in the final review.
Show translations
🇪🇸 Spanish: Pertinente / relevante🇫🇷 French: Pertinent
🇩🇪 German: Relevant
🇮🇹 Italian: Pertinente / rilevante
🇵🇹 Portuguese: Relevante / pertinente
💡 Nuance: Interesting is not enough. Relevant means it belongs in this argument.
❔ Ambiguous
open to more than one reasonable reading
Example: The wording of the survey item was ambiguous, so answers were hard to compare.
🇫🇷 French: Ambigu
🇩🇪 German: Mehrdeutig / ambig
🇮🇹 Italian: Ambiguo
🇵🇹 Portuguese: Ambíguo
💡 Nuance: Opposite of clear. Coherent writing tries not to stay ambiguous by accident.
open to more than one reasonable reading
Example: The wording of the survey item was ambiguous, so answers were hard to compare.
Show translations
🇪🇸 Spanish: Ambiguo🇫🇷 French: Ambigu
🇩🇪 German: Mehrdeutig / ambig
🇮🇹 Italian: Ambiguo
🇵🇹 Portuguese: Ambíguo
💡 Nuance: Opposite of clear. Coherent writing tries not to stay ambiguous by accident.
🧩 Coherent
logically connected as one clear whole, with no contradiction
Example: The argument is coherent: each paragraph supports the same claim.
🇫🇷 French: Cohérent
🇩🇪 German: Kohärent / schlüssig
🇮🇹 Italian: Coerente
🇵🇹 Portuguese: Coerente
💡 Nuance: The parts fit. Comprehensive means wide coverage — not the same quality.
logically connected as one clear whole, with no contradiction
Example: The argument is coherent: each paragraph supports the same claim.
Show translations
🇪🇸 Spanish: Coherente🇫🇷 French: Cohérent
🇩🇪 German: Kohärent / schlüssig
🇮🇹 Italian: Coerente
🇵🇹 Portuguese: Coerente
💡 Nuance: The parts fit. Comprehensive means wide coverage — not the same quality.
✅ Validity
the quality of being well-founded, or of measuring what it claims to measure
Example: Questions were raised about the validity of the self-report measures.
🇫🇷 French: Validité
🇩🇪 German: Validität / Gültigkeit
🇮🇹 Italian: Validità
🇵🇹 Portuguese: Validade
💡 Nuance: Asks whether the claim or tool is genuinely sound — not just consistent.
the quality of being well-founded, or of measuring what it claims to measure
Example: Questions were raised about the validity of the self-report measures.
Show translations
🇪🇸 Spanish: Validez🇫🇷 French: Validité
🇩🇪 German: Validität / Gültigkeit
🇮🇹 Italian: Validità
🇵🇹 Portuguese: Validade
💡 Nuance: Asks whether the claim or tool is genuinely sound — not just consistent.
📏 Criterion
a standard used to judge or select something (plural: criteria)
Example: One criterion for inclusion was publication after 2015.
🇫🇷 French: Critère
🇩🇪 German: Kriterium
🇮🇹 Italian: Criterio
🇵🇹 Portuguese: Critério
💡 Nuance: You evaluate against criteria. One is a criterion.
a standard used to judge or select something (plural: criteria)
Example: One criterion for inclusion was publication after 2015.
Show translations
🇪🇸 Spanish: Criterio🇫🇷 French: Critère
🇩🇪 German: Kriterium
🇮🇹 Italian: Criterio
🇵🇹 Portuguese: Critério
💡 Nuance: You evaluate against criteria. One is a criterion.
📈 Correlation
a relationship in which two or more things tend to vary together
Example: The study found a moderate correlation between practice hours and scores.
🇫🇷 French: Corrélation
🇩🇪 German: Korrelation
🇮🇹 Italian: Correlazione
🇵🇹 Portuguese: Correlação
💡 Nuance: Does not prove causation. Things can move together without one causing the other.
a relationship in which two or more things tend to vary together
Example: The study found a moderate correlation between practice hours and scores.
Show translations
🇪🇸 Spanish: Correlación🇫🇷 French: Corrélation
🇩🇪 German: Korrelation
🇮🇹 Italian: Correlazione
🇵🇹 Portuguese: Correlação
💡 Nuance: Does not prove causation. Things can move together without one causing the other.
📚 Comprehensive
covering nearly all the important aspects of a subject
Example: The review offers a comprehensive account of the last decade of research.
🇫🇷 French: Complet / exhaustif
🇩🇪 German: Umfassend
🇮🇹 Italian: Esaustivo / completo
🇵🇹 Portuguese: Abrangente / exaustivo
💡 Nuance: Breadth. It does not automatically mean equal depth in every area.
covering nearly all the important aspects of a subject
Example: The review offers a comprehensive account of the last decade of research.
Show translations
🇪🇸 Spanish: Exhaustivo / amplio🇫🇷 French: Complet / exhaustif
🇩🇪 German: Umfassend
🇮🇹 Italian: Esaustivo / completo
🇵🇹 Portuguese: Abrangente / exaustivo
💡 Nuance: Breadth. It does not automatically mean equal depth in every area.
🧠 Useful Distinctions
🔍 Analyze vs. ⚖️ Evaluate vs. 🧩 Synthesize
Analyze takes the thing apart. Evaluate judges how good or useful it is. Synthesize joins separate sources into a new whole. A literature review often does all three — in that order.
Analyze takes the thing apart. Evaluate judges how good or useful it is. Synthesize joins separate sources into a new whole. A literature review often does all three — in that order.
↔️ Distinguish vs. ⚖️ Contrast
Distinguish stops a mix-up (correlation vs. causation). Contrast sets two approaches side by side to show how they differ.
Distinguish stops a mix-up (correlation vs. causation). Contrast sets two approaches side by side to show how they differ.
➡️ Infer vs. ↪️ Implication
The reader infers. The finding has implications. You infer a conclusion from evidence; you discuss implications after the results.
The reader infers. The finding has implications. You infer a conclusion from evidence; you discuss implications after the results.
💡 Hypothesis vs. 🧱 Premise vs. ❓ Assumption
A hypothesis is testable. A premise is a stated starting claim. An assumption is often unstated until someone names it.
A hypothesis is testable. A premise is a stated starting claim. An assumption is often unstated until someone names it.
📋 Preliminary vs. ⏭️ Subsequent
Preliminary = early and not final. Subsequent = what came after. Preliminary results first; subsequent studies later.
Preliminary = early and not final. Subsequent = what came after. Preliminary results first; subsequent studies later.
📈 Correlation vs. causation
A correlation means two things move together. It does not mean one causes the other. Academic writing almost always distinguishes the two.
A correlation means two things move together. It does not mean one causes the other. Academic writing almost always distinguishes the two.
✅ Validity vs. 🧩 Coherent vs. 📚 Comprehensive
Validity: is this sound / does it measure what it claims? Coherent: do the parts fit? Comprehensive: is the coverage wide?
Validity: is this sound / does it measure what it claims? Coherent: do the parts fit? Comprehensive: is the coverage wide?
💬 Everyday Academic Phrases
🔍 This section analyzes the data rather than retelling it.
breakdown, not summary
🇫🇷 Cette section analyse les données au lieu de les raconter.
🇩🇪 Dieser Abschnitt analysiert die Daten, statt sie nachzuerzählen.
🇮🇹 Questa sezione analizza i dati invece di ripeterli.
🇵🇹 Esta seção analisa os dados em vez de apenas contá-los.
breakdown, not summary
Show translations
🇪🇸 Esta sección analiza los datos en lugar de repetirlos.🇫🇷 Cette section analyse les données au lieu de les raconter.
🇩🇪 Dieser Abschnitt analysiert die Daten, statt sie nachzuerzählen.
🇮🇹 Questa sezione analizza i dati invece di ripeterli.
🇵🇹 Esta seção analisa os dados em vez de apenas contá-los.
↔️ We need to distinguish correlation from causation.
the classic academic warning
🇫🇷 Il faut distinguer corrélation et causalité.
🇩🇪 Wir müssen Korrelation und Kausalität unterscheiden.
🇮🇹 Bisogna distinguere correlazione e causalità.
🇵🇹 Precisamos distinguir correlação e causalidade.
the classic academic warning
Show translations
🇪🇸 Hay que distinguir correlación y causalidad.🇫🇷 Il faut distinguer corrélation et causalité.
🇩🇪 Wir müssen Korrelation und Kausalität unterscheiden.
🇮🇹 Bisogna distinguere correlazione e causalità.
🇵🇹 Precisamos distinguir correlação e causalidade.
📋 These findings are still preliminary.
early numbers, not the last word
🇫🇷 Ces résultats sont encore préliminaires.
🇩🇪 Diese Befunde sind noch vorläufig.
🇮🇹 Questi risultati sono ancora preliminari.
🇵🇹 Esses achados ainda são preliminares.
early numbers, not the last word
Show translations
🇪🇸 Estos resultados siguen siendo preliminares.🇫🇷 Ces résultats sont encore préliminaires.
🇩🇪 Diese Befunde sind noch vorläufig.
🇮🇹 Questi risultati sono ancora preliminari.
🇵🇹 Esses achados ainda são preliminares.
↪️ One implication is that the policy should be tested again.
the “so what?” after the result
🇫🇷 Une implication est que la politique devrait être testée à nouveau.
🇩🇪 Eine Implikation ist, dass die Maßnahme erneut geprüft werden sollte.
🇮🇹 Un’implicazione è che la politica andrebbe testata di nuovo.
🇵🇹 Uma implicação é que a política deveria ser testada outra vez.
the “so what?” after the result
Show translations
🇪🇸 Una implicación es que la política debería probarse de nuevo.🇫🇷 Une implication est que la politique devrait être testée à nouveau.
🇩🇪 Eine Implikation ist, dass die Maßnahme erneut geprüft werden sollte.
🇮🇹 Un’implicazione è che la politica andrebbe testata di nuovo.
🇵🇹 Uma implicação é que a política deveria ser testada outra vez.
🏆 Final Practice
English in the Real World:
Read the situation. Choose the more precise academic word.
Read the situation. Choose the more precise academic word.
Question 1 of 8
✅ Correct: 0
❓ Questions: 0
🎯 Accuracy: 0%